Presupposition in Semantics Essay

IntroductionPresupposition is originated in the field of philosophy and it was proposed by German philosopher Ferge in 1892. In the 1960s, presupposition entered the area of linguistics and became a significant concept in semantics. Later in the 1970s, Keenan introduced presupposition to the pragmatics to describe a relation between a speaker and the appropriateness of a sentence in a context (Levinson: 177). Hence, presupposition can be distinguished into two categories: semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition. This thesis is mainly centered on the exploration of presupposition in semantics from the perspectives of features and problems of presupposition. For the sake of searching for the solutions to the problems, the writer also brings two pragmatic theories of presupposition into discussion. Part I. Two Approaches to PresuppositionIn the linguistics, two approaches to presupposition are semantic and pragmatic. Semantic presupposition views the sentence relations in terms of truth relations while pragmatic presupposition describes sentences as an interaction between individuals. A.Semantic PresuppositionIn ordinary language, of course, to presuppose something means to assume it, and the narrower technical use in semantics is related to this (Saeed: 93). In semantics, the meaning of a sentence is based on the sentence itself instead of something constructed by the participants. The semantic presupposition is only concerned about the truth value of the statements. For instance,a)John managed to stop in time. b)John tried to stop in time. (Suo: 130)In the example, sentence a) presupposes sentence b), that is to say, if it is true that John managed to stop in time, it must be true that John tried to stop in time. Meanwhile, if this proposition is false, the presupposition that John tried to stop in time still exists. However, only the truth of sentence b) doesn’t tell anything concerning the result whether he stopped in time or not. Based on the analysis, we can draw a truth table for this presupposition:a bT → TF → TT or F ↠ TThis table is an overt description of the truth relations between sentence a) and b). If sentence a) is true, then its presupposition b) is also true. If sentence a) is false, then the truth of b) still survives.  While if sentence b) is true, sentence a) can be either true or false. The interpretation of presupposition in semantics is on the basis of truth relations. B.Pragmatic PresuppositionCompared with semantic presupposition- a truth-relation approach, pragmatic presupposition is an interactional approach in interpreting the sentence relations. Stalnaker argues that presupposition is essentially a pragmatic phenomenon: part of the set of assumptions is made by participants in a conversation, which he terms the common ground (Saeed: 101). This common ground is the mutual knowledge shared by both speaker and hearer. For example, â€Å"I am afraid my car broke down.† The presupposition of this utterance is that the speaker has a car, which is known to the hearer. However, if the hearer originally doesn’t know the fact, on hearing the utterance, s/he can take it as a common ground for a further conversation. By virtue of context, appropriate presupposition will help the hearer understand the utterance of the speaker. During the conversation, both speaker and hearer are doing the turn-taking and they can depend on the former utterances to conduct a smooth communication. By comparison of semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition, we can gain a better understanding of this notion applied in the linguistics. However, the focus of this thesis is on the presupposition in the semantics. Thus, the following parts will be concentrated on the semantic presupposition. Part II. Features of Semantic PresuppositionIn semantics, presupposition possesses unique features: being different from entailment, presupposition is stable under negation. It is produced not only by the definite description, but also by presupposition triggers. A.StabilitySemantic presupposition relies on the meaning of words and grammatical structures to describe the truth relations between sentences and these aspects don’t vary too much from context to context. Hence,  presupposition is relatively stable and it remains constant under negation of the main sentence. This feature of semantic presupposition makes a distinction between entailment and presupposition. For example,a)I borrowed my friend’s bike today. b)I borrowed something today. If sentence a) is true, it guarantees the truth of sentence b), to be more specific, a) entails b). However, if we negate a) to form a’) then it no longer entails b), repeated as follows:a’) I didn’t borrow my friend’s bike today. b’) I borrowed something today. If it is false that I borrowed my friend’s bike today, it can not tell whether I borrowed something today or not. It might be true that I borrowed something instead of my friend’s bike, but we just don’t know. In contrast, the presupposing sentence is constant even under negation, for instance, c)My sister got married last year. d)I have a sister. The pre-condition of sentence c) is d), if c) is true then d) must be taken as a fact. In other words, sentence c) has the presupposition in d) and the truth of c) makes sure the truth of d) as well. If negating c) as â€Å"My sister didn’t get married last year.† The presupposition that â€Å"I have a sister† also survives. This is the difference between entailment and presupposition, namely, the negation of an entailing sentence leads to the failure of the entailment while negating a presupposing sentence allows the presupposition to survive. B.Presupposition TriggersOn the one hand, the existence of presupposition can derive from the use of a name or definite description. On the other hand, it  can be produced by particular words or sentence constructions, which are called presupposition triggers. Karttunen has collected thirty-one kinds of triggers but in the following section the writer will mainly focus on four types of these triggers: factive verbs, change of state verbs, temporal clauses and cleft sentences. To begin with, verbs like â€Å"regret,† â€Å"deplore,† â€Å"know† and â€Å"agree† are under the category of factive verbs, for they presuppose the truth of the complement clause. For instance,a)Martha regrets/ doesn’t regret drinking John’s home brew. b)Martha drank John’s home brew. (Suo: 131)Whether Martha regrets drinking John’s home brew or not, it is a known fact that Martha drank John’s home brew. The sentence a) has the presupposition in b). By contrast, no such presupposition exists with the non-factive verb like â€Å"think.† For example,c)Tom thought that John was late. d)John was late. Sentence c) indicates that it is only Tom’ personal opinion of John’s being late. Actually, John might not be late and the truth doesn’t reveal from the sentence itself. Therefore, sentence c) doesn’t have the presupposition in d) due to the non-factive verb â€Å"think.†Secondly, the employments of verbs like â€Å"stop,† â€Å"start,† â€Å"begin† and â€Å"finish† imply the change of state. Hence, these lexical triggers are regarded as change of state verbs, which describe the new state and presuppose the former state as well. For instance,a)John stopped/ didn’t stop beating his wife. b)John had been beating his wife. (Suo: 131)The verb â€Å"stop† means making something end and here if John stopped beating his wife, which means that he makes the action of beating his wife end. But if he didn’t stop, the occasion of beating will continue to happen in the future. No matter what the situation is, sentence a) presupposes the fact b) that John had been beating his wife as the former state. What’s more, not only the lexical words trigger the presupposition, but also clauses like temporal clauses may produce presupposition. For example,a)Linda went to the supermarket before she met her friends. b)Linda met her friends. The temporal clause marked by the conjunction â€Å"before† shows that Linda went to the supermarket first and then went to meet her friends. In effect, sentence a) states the fact that Linda really met her friends. It is this temporal clause that ensures the truth of sentence b) and also triggers the presupposition in b). Last but not least, syntactic structure such as cleft sentence can also act as a trigger for the production of certain types of presupposition. For example,a)It was the noise that annoyed me. b)What annoyed me was the noise. c)Something annoyed me. In the example, the cleft construction in a) and the pseudo-cleft in b) share the presupposition in c). No matter how the sentence structure changes, the essence of the sentence remains unchanged. What sentence a) and b) intend to stress is that there is something annoyed me. By means of the features like stability and presupposition triggers, the real intention of the utterances can be investigated. If the speaker changes the predicate â€Å"has† to â€Å"hasn’t,† or â€Å"does† to â€Å"doesn’t,† the presupposition for the utterance is the same, for presupposition is of stability. Presupposition triggers can be used as a tool to present the essence of the sentence, no matter what lexical words and constructions are applied. Part III. Problems of Semantic PresuppositionIn semantics, this truth-based approach gives rise to problems for the presupposition, such as, presupposition failure, the defeasibility of presupposition and the  projection problem. A.Presupposition FailureOn the basis of truth condition, it has been taken for granted that a name or definite description being used refers to the existent entity in the field of semantics. However, if the named or described entity doesn’t exist, it causes problem for this truth-relation approach, which is known as presupposition failure. The following example is by now the most discussed one in this literature:a)The King of France is bald. b)There is a King of France. (Saeed: 96)According to the criterion of truth relation, no doubt sentence a) presupposes sentence b), if it is true that there is a King of France. But if there is no King of France, that is to say, the sentence b) is false, the problem is aroused, for it is uncertain whether this presupposition survives or not. Are the sentences like a) true or false, or just in a gray area, neither true nor false? This dubious situation for truth-based approach results in the truth value gap. For such a problem, Russell offers a famous solution to make an analysis of this definite description as three expressions as follows:The King of France is bald is true if and only if:a)at least one thing is the kingb)at most one thing is the kingc)whatever is the king is bald. (Saeed: 97)From the Russell’s analysis, we know that if there is no King of France, it leads to the falsity of this proposition that the King of France is bald. Thus, there is no gray area between true or false, no truth value gap. However, it seems to be too complex to employ these preconditions for the explanation of one name and it may cost great efforts to analyze the preconditions whenever meet with such kind of statements. In comparison with truth relation approach, it may be less problematic for an interactional approach. During the communication between the individuals, whenever an unfamiliar name or definite description occurs, the hearer can interrupt the speaker so as to signal the failure of the conversation. For instance, the speaker says to someone, â€Å"Mr. Hong will invite us to dinner next Friday.† If the hearer doesn’t know Mr. Hong, it may cause confusion. As the conversation continues, the hearer can ask the speaker who Mr. Hong  is. As for the speaker, s/he can take an immediate response to clear up the misunderstanding. The presupposition failure in semantics results from the narrow question of the truth value of statements about non-existent entities, while in pragmatics, the attention is paid to the more general question of what conventions license a speaker’s referring use of name or definite description. B.DefeasibilityOne of the peculiar things about presupposition is that it is sensitive to context, either immediate linguistic context or the less immediate discourse context, or in circumstances where contrary assumptions are made. In particular context, the presupposition is cancelled and this phenomenon is known as defeasibility. Two factors result in presupposition cancellation: one is the linguistic context and the other one is background assumption about the world. One kind of presupposition defeasibility arises in certain types of linguistic context. For example,You say that someone in this room loves Mary. Well maybe so. But it certainly isn’t Fred who loves Mary. And it certainly isn’t John . . . (We continue in this way until we have enumerated all the people in the room). Therefore no one in this room loves Mary. (Suo: 135)In the example, each of the cleft sentences (it certainly isn’t Fred, etc.) are supposed to presuppose that there is someone in this room who loves Mary, for presupposition is constant under negation. However, the speaker intends to persuade the hearer that there is no one in this room who loves Mary by ruling out the possibilities. Therefore, the presupposition that someone in this room loves Mary is defeated in this counterfactual assumption. Here is another example of the same kind:a)John didn’t manage to pass his exams. b)John tried to pass his exams. c)John didn’t manage to pass his exams. In fact he didn’t even try. Sentence a) has the presupposition in b), but if put a) into such a statement as c), the prior presupposition is abandoned. Without knowing the real fact, if someone makes the utterance that John didn’t manage to pass his exams, it may leave the hearer an impression that at least once he tried to pass his exams. On hearing the fact the hearer will know John’s failure for the exams is due to his lack of efforts in his study. Thus, the presupposition can be cancelled within certain contexts. The other kind of presupposition defeasibility is caused by our general knowledge of the world. For instance,a)She cried before she finished her thesis. b)She finished her thesis. (Saeed: 187)As mentioned above, the temporal clause functions as a trigger for the presupposition. Sentence a) with before-clause presupposes that indeed she finished her thesis. However, if the verb in the main clause is changed to â€Å"die,† the situation will be totally different. For instance,c)She died before she finished her thesis. d)She finished her thesis. (Saeed: 187)Since her death preceded the event of finishing her thesis, it is certain that she never finished the thesis. It is common sense that people do not conduct things after they die. Even if sentence c) is expressed with before-clause, it doesn’t have the presupposition in d). As a result of background belief in the real world, the previous presupposition that she finished her thesis is blocked in this context. C.Projection ProblemLangendoen and Savin suggest that the set of presuppositions of the complex whole is the simple sum of the presuppositions of the parts, i.e. if S0 is a complex sentence containing sentences S1, S2, . . . Sn as constituents, then the presuppositions of S0 = the presuppositions of S1 + the presuppositions of S2 . . . + the presuppositions of Sn (Levinson: 191). For example,S0: John stopped accusing Mary of beating her husband. S1: John accused Mary of beating her husband. S1†²: John judged that it was bad for Mary to beat her husband. S2: John stopped doing it. S2†²: Before time T, John did it. (Suo: 136)In the example, sentence S0 is the complex sentence including two parts S1 and S2, to be more specific, from the statement that John stopped accusing Mary of beating her husband, two meanings can be interpreted: one is that John accused Mary of beating her husband and the other one is that John stopped doing it. The presupposition of S1 is S1†², namely, S1 presupposes that John judged that it was bad for Mary to beat her husband. While S2 has the presupposition in S2†², that is to say, S2 presupposes that before time T, John did it. Thus, the presuppositions of S0 are the presupposition of S1 plus the presupposition of S2. As a matter of fact, this simple solution to the presuppositions of complex sentences is far from correct and it turns out to be impossible to take it as a formula. By using this solution, it is difficult to predict exactly which presuppositions of the parts survive in the whole presupposition of the complex sentences. This compositional problem is called the projection problem for the presuppositions. The projection problem in the presuppositions has two aspects: on the one hand, presuppositions remain in the linguistic context while entailments disappear. On the other hand, presuppositions are cancelled in certain contexts where entailments survive. The first aspect of the projection problem is the survival of presuppositions and cancellation of entailments in the same context. As mentioned above, negation is a typical example for the distinction between presupposition and entailment, for presupposition is stable under negation while entailment isn’t. However, there are other situations in which presupposition remains  and entailment disappears. For instance,a)Mr. Brown bought four books. b)There is a Mr. Brown. c)Mr. Brown bought three books. d)It is possible that Mr. Brown bought four books. e)Mr. Brown could have bought four books. In this example, sentence a) presupposes sentence b) and entails sentence c). If it is true that Mr. Brown bought four books, the precondition for this proposition that there is a Mr. Brown must also be true. And if he already bought four books, he is supposed to have bought three books. However, when the modal operators or modal verbs are embedded in the original statement, the entailment of a) disappears while the presupposition b) still exists. Because modal operators like â€Å"possible,† â€Å"probable† and modal verbs like â€Å"could,† â€Å"should† are considered to be a kind of conjecture. The employments of them reveal speaker’s uncertainty about his utterances. Another situation of the same kind is the compound sentences formed by the connectives â€Å"and,† â€Å"or,† â€Å"if . . . then† and what not. For instance,a)The two students handed in the homework late again this Monday. b)A student handed in the homework late this Monday. c)The two students handed in the homework late before. d)If the two students handed in the homework late again this Monday, their teacher will get angry. The adverb â€Å"again† applied in the sentence a) presupposes that the two students handed in the homework late before. If two students handed in the homework late, it must entail that one of them handed in the homework late. Thus, sentence a) presupposes c) and also entails b). However, if sentence  a) is embedded in a complex sentence like d), the utterance a) can only be regarded as an assumption in the complex whole. Hence, the former entailment is abandoned in the new compound sentence but the presupposition that they did before still survives. The other aspect of the projection problem is that presupposition is blocked while entailment still exists in certain contexts. If the predicates of the utterances are the verbs of propositional attitude such as â€Å"want,† â€Å"believe,† â€Å"imagine,† â€Å"dream† and the like, the blocking of presupposition appears to take place. For instance,a)Tom believes he’s the president of America. b)There is a present president of America. In this example, sentence a) entails that Tom believes something, but it doesn’t have the presupposition that there is a present president of America. The verb like â€Å"believe† is only a non-factive verb, which doesn’t ensure the truth of its complement. Moreover, the employment of it will leave the hearer an impression that what the speaker says is just a personal opinion. Thus, the presupposition is blocked because of the verb â€Å"believe.†Another example is given as follows:a)I dreamed that I was a German and that I regretted being a German. b)I was a German. In the sentence a), the speaker doesn’t shoulder the responsibility of uttering it by employing the verb â€Å"dream.† The application of â€Å"dream† indicates that this utterance can not be taken seriously as a fact. However, sentence a) still entails that â€Å"I dreamed something,† but doesn’t presuppose that â€Å"I was a German.† In such a situation, the complex sentences with certain verbs of propositional attitude block their presuppositions but maintain the entailments. By means of analyzing the problems of presupposition in the field of semantics, we can draw a conclusion that this truth relation approach is far  from adequate to describe the relationships between presupposing and presupposed sentences. Admittedly, the issue of presupposition is not only being discussed in semantics but also in the pragmatics. Part IV. Pragmatic Theories of PresuppositionAs for pragmatic presupposition, various theories have been put forward by linguists such as Stalnaker, Gazdar and what not. Among these theories, two of them are the most developed theories that deal with the defeasibility and the projection problems. Both theories assume that presuppositions are part of the conventional meaning of expressions, instead of semantic inference. The first theory has been developed by Karttunen and Peters, which is expressed in the framework of Montague grammar. In the Montague grammar, clauses are built up from their constituents from the bottom up rather than from the top down as in transformational generative grammar (Levinson: 207). The basic idea in this theory is that sentences are built up from their components and the meanings conveyed in these sentences are subject to the words, clauses and so on, but in the presuppositions, meanings are associated with these triggers. According to Karttunen and Peters’ theory, presuppositions are actually non-cancellable. The meaning expressions that capture the presuppositional content of each presupposition-triggering item will be related with each constituent a heritage expression. If there is a predicate like propositional attitude verb, it will have a heritage expression that blocks the presuppositions ascending to be presupposition of the whole sentence. In such circumstances, presupposition isn’t in fact cancelled, but it is blocked during the process of derivation by the heritage expression. For example,a)Bush thinks that Kerry’s attitude about terrorism is dangerous. b)Kerry has an attitude about terrorism. The subordinate clause of sentence a) presupposes that Kerry has an attitude about terrorism. However, the verb â€Å"think† has the heritage expression which prevents this presupposition from being the presupposition of the whole. The other theory is proposed by Gazdar, in which presuppositions are actually cancelled. At the early stage of derivation, the presuppositions of any complex sentence will consist of all the potential presuppositions of the parts. Then a canceling mechanism will begin to work and it only selects these presuppositions which are consistent with all the propositions already in the context. In this theory, the generations of presuppositions adhere to a special order: first the entailments of what are said are added to the context, then the conversational implicatures, and only finally the presupposition (Levinson: 213). In each step, these presuppositions that contradict the former propositions will be eliminated through selection and only the ones being consistent with them will survive. For example,a)If there is a King of France, the King of France doesn’t any longer live in Versaills. b)The speaker knows that there exists a King of France. c)It is consistent with all the speaker knows that there is not a King of France. (Suo: 143)In the sentence a), the clause that â€Å"the King of France doesn’t any longer live in Versaills† has the potential presupposition in b). However, the conditional sentence a) entails that there is not a King of France. Based on the special order in Gazdar’s theory, this entailment enters into the context before the potential presupposition. Hence, this potential presupposition is cancelled without entering into the context. Although the two theories are opposing to each other, both of them offer an explanation for the defeasibility of presupposition and projection problem. However, even in the field of pragmatics, adequate solution to the presupposition is not obtained, which needs further developments. ConclusionIn the field of linguistics, we can probe into the presupposition from two perspectives, namely, semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition. This thesis mainly focuses on the interpretation of presupposition in semantics. The writer introduces the features of semantic presupposition like stability under negation and presupposition triggers and then makes an analysis of the problems aroused by this truth-based theory  such as presupposition failure, defeasibility and projection problem. To solve these problems, two theories concerning the pragmatic presupposition are discussed. Although both of them offer the explanations for the problems of presupposition, they are not considered to be adequate solutions. The further developments of presupposition rely on the complex interactions between semantics and pragmatics. References Levinson, Stephen C. Pragmtics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2005. Saeed, John I. Semantics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2005.

Character Sketch of George Essay

George would not be himself if he didn’t have Lennie. George can be describe as a responsible and caring person as well as a dreamer. George is responsible not only for himself, but also for Lennie â€Å"I want you to stay with me, Lennie. Jesus Christ somebody’d shoot you for a coyote if you was by yourself. No, you stay with me. Your Aunt Clara wouldn’t like you running off by yourself, even if she is dead.† (Steinbeck, 13); Lennie said excitedly â€Å"But not us! An’ why? Because†¦ because I got you to look after me, and you got me to look after you, and that’s why.† (Steinbeck, 14) George promised Lennie’s Aunt Clara that he would take care of Lennie no matter what happened, even if he was responsible for all of Lennie’s trouble and also for Lennie’s death. He would never abandon him despite of his mental impairment even though he had the chance to. As well as George cares a lot about Lennie and even for the other guys of the ranch. George calmly admits, â€Å"I been mean ain’t I?† (Steinbeck, 12); George trying to pick up his words â€Å" Ever’body gonna be nice to you. Ain’t gonna be no more trouble. Nobody gonna hurt nobody nor steal from ‘em.†(what to put) Steinbeck writes â€Å"And George raised the gun and steadied it, and he brought the muzzle of it close to the back of Lennie’s head.† (Steinbeck, 106) George knows when he had hurt(s) Lennie’s feelings. He killed Lennie because he doesn’t want Lennie to suffer in this world anymore, because he cares. It wasn’t the best thing that he could do but he thought that it would be easier for Lennie and himself. Furthermore, George and Lennie have a plan, to buy a house, a dream that that they can call their own. It’s still the American dream today. George said convincingly to Lennie â€Å"With us it ain’t like that. We got a future. We got somebody to talk to that gives a damn about us. We don’t have to sit in bar room blowin’ our jack jus’ because we got no place else to go. If them other guys gets in jail they can rot for all anybody gives a damn. But not us†¦(another line) We’ll have a big vegetable patch and a rabbit hutch and chickens. And when it rains in the winter, we’ll just say the hell with going’ to work and we’ll build up around it an’ listen to the rain comin’ down on the roof – Nuts!† (Steinbeck, 14) George and Lennie planned what they wanted to have a long time ago, but Lennie wanted to hear it all over again. They dreamt of owning â€Å"an acre of land and a shack† to call their own. It seemed possible when they started working in the Ranch with Candy also participating, but after Lennie died, George would not have Lennie to make him all excited about their dream. And there’s no point of achieving it without Lennie because this dream made their friendship tight, made them become closer to each other, and made them think that they have a future. If Lennie wasn’t part of George’s life then George wouldn’t have a future, he’d just go to town and blow his jack each month like all the other bindle stiffs around. Often men’s plan goes awry, we should expect the unexpected.

Tiger Airways- Singapore Essay

Our marketing team ran a market investigation in Guangzhou, China. The aim of this research is to understand who are the core users, what are their flight experience and which values define them. The answers will lead us to comprehend their purchasing behaviour, hence allow us to plan a strategy for our company’s expansion. We will conduct our research with in mind Tiger Airway’s mission and vision: Mission – to address the needs of our budget conscious travellers looking for a reliable and fun low-fare service in the Asia pacific region. Vision – we will empower people to explore new destinations and accumulate memorable experiences by providing an expanding network of destinations and affordable travel options. We will always commit to maintain the highest norms of safety, security and reliability. As you may know, our budget carrier model revolves around three customer focused core strategy: Market stimulation – creating possibilities for new travellers and empowering budget conscious customers to fly more. Cost controls – keeping fares low Capacity utilisation – maximising and planning air traffic With approximately 1.35 billion citizens the Chinese market is alluring for any businesses, mostly for low cost carriers. However, the diversity of mind and purchasing power can be a great challenge for our expansion. To meet the needs, wants and expectations of each category of customers, we undertook a market research with the help of two Chinese student through a laddering interview. The answers gave us a glimpse of the desires of this population. Further, more thorough, market research must be made before any decisions are taken. We, also, allowed ourselves to provide in this report, a non-exhaustive list of suggestions, after having developed some understanding of the customer’s key insights. Although our role is to research, we thought it would offer us further hints before a final verdict is made.

Aristotle view friendship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Aristotle view friendship - Essay Example According to Tutuska, Aristotle described friendship of utility as the one that is for the old and that it is easily dissolved. He also described it as acquaintance since it is based on something that is introduced into the relationship by the other person. He described friendship of pleasure as the one that is normally built among the young people as it has great influences from the pleasures and passions that are in their lives. Tutuska explains that these types of friendship are unstable and that they are bound to change with time which leads to dissolving of the friendship. Aristotle explains that the only difference between friendship of utility and that of pleasure is that people in friendship of pleasure seeks for something that is pleasant to them at the moment whereas those seeking friendship of utility are looking for a business deal or long term benefits. It can also be identified that the bonds between individuals in friendship of utility are very weak and this leads to i t being easily dissolved. Tutuska goes ahead to describe the third type of friendship as that friendship of virtue. Aristotle termed this as the highest friendship that one can achieve as it is based on the fact that a person wishes the best their friends regardless of utility or pleasure. Aristotle calls it as a sort that is complete as it exists between people who are good and are alike in virtue. He terms it as a friendship that is long lasting and that it is tough to obtain as these types of people are hard to come by as it takes someone to do a lot of work to have virtuous friendship. Virtuous friendship requires a lot of time and care to be spent and therefore it limits the number of friends that can be found in it. Friendship of virtue is felt among the good people and that it is resistant to slander. The main reasons that Aristotle values friendship so much is that friendship supersedes honour and justice. He argues that there is no any person who would wish to stay without a friend. He also says that those people who are in leadership and are given a great deal of power are in dire need of friendship and that law makers tend to take friendship with a lot of seriousness than justice. He terms friendship as glue that holds cities together and that it is beautiful by itself. Aristotle also argues that friendship can be enjoyed since it is choiceworthy for its own sake and that it is something that is much greater that being honoured (Tutuska 353-355). Aristotle explains that it takes character to maintain virtuous friendships which helps in maintaining a solid community as communities are built around friendship. He also argues that virtuous friendships are very few and that friendships of utility and that of pleasure are the ones that keep the cities together. This makes it clear to us that there is still the need to retain honour and justice within friendships. Ways in which friendship shape our public activity Friendship can be termed as a relationshi p that exists among people who are in good terms with each other as explained above. This means that when handling any activity in public, a person will be keen to take care of the feeling of other people. Therefore, people will avoid any speech or activity that can lead to any form of violence among the co-existing communities. This helps in the development of any nation as the environment that will be created in a peaceful nation will

Drugstore Cowboy Film Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Drugstore Cowboy Film Analysis - Essay Example In â€Å"Drugstore Cowboy† the weakness of the hero is drugs. The film as the title indicates is on drug abuse, but is not a â€Å"say no to drug† sort of a slogan mongering publicity campaign film. The film tells us about the generation of the early seventies who took to drugs. But the film produced in late eighties tells the story of the life of that generation of the seventies when America was almost obsessed with anti drug sentiment bordering on the verge of hysteria. The late eighties were the times of the winners. Only they counted. But this film is telling us about the losers belonging to the generation just earlier, who got lost in drugs and unreal hallucinatory lives. The film tries to understand that generation, while showing how comically meaningless and desperate the life of the addicts were. The border between medicine and drug is wafer thin. The change of meaning is only in how the human beings relate to it. Like drug abuse there is abuse of medicines; thi s is an issue raised by the traditional medical practitioners like the Ayurvedic doctors against Allopathic practices. To quote Angus Bancroft: A drug is a substance used in a drug-like way, a medicine is the substance applied to cure, and a poison the substance used to kill. The end point is that any object or relationship to an object is only formed by the way humans relate to it. Psychoactive substances become ‘drug’ only when they take on socially active characteristics, which incorporate human agency. (Drug Intoxication & Society, PP.176) PERSONEL BUT IMPASSIONATE: The film is based on the unpublished novel by James Fogle. This writer is one who had served imprisonment for drug abuse crimes. Thus the account of the life of the drug addict depicted here is very intimate and personal. It is something like an insider story. But the positive feature of the film’s handling of the issue is that it is not romanticizing drug addiction, in spite of it being an insider narrative. At the same

Marketing Grocery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing Grocery - Essay Example Macro-environmental Factors Macro-environmental factors are the environmental factors that affect the marketing strategies of the organization although it has limited chances of manipulating them. They include political-legal, socio-cultural, international and technological factors. The organization can define these factors in terms of scanning for better understanding of all opportunities and threats it may face together with the required strategic devices to adjust so as organization can attain and maintain competitive advantage (Kotler & Armstrong, 2006). Macro-environmental factors originate from outside of the organization and they cannot be changed by the organization’s actions. Specifically an organization can get great challenges when there changes in this factor of environment but the organization itself cannot affect the environment. Legislation The legal environment forces organizations to become complex while affecting business operations directly. It is difficult for businesses to operate their activities without meeting obligations relating to regulations of the law. Some of the regulations that may affect bussines organizations include consumerism regulations, competitive and relations of employees. Most of regulations are associated with regulatory agencies. The US has the powerful regulatory agencies that include Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and many others. Compliance cost of the regulations is very expensive although most of them are passed on consumers at the end. This means that most of the product prizes may be high to meet the requirements of all the regulations. Therefore, the organizations commodity-marketing price depends heavily on the legal requirements (Schmidt, 2005). Socio-cultural Factors Socio-cultural factors of environment comprises of traditions, values and lifestyles that provide the characteristics upon which the organization operates. Socio-cultural factors of environment affects the ability of an organization to get resources, come up with its own services and operate within a society. Social-cultural factors comprises of all aspects within the society that has the ability to influence the performance of an organization. They can include expanding educational levels, population demographics, values and norms together with the attitude towards social responsibility (Schmidt, 2005). Technological Factors Technology i s a factor that affects the development of strategic plans of an organization. Variation in technology may lead greatly influence the demand of the organizations goods and services. It may also affect its processing techniques and the required raw materials for manufacturing goods. The changing of technology can influence an organization in two ways. First, it may provide new opportunities for the organization to explore and get better returns. On the other hand, it may cause threats to the survival status of the organization, the product or industry. Technological improvements continue to increase at a very high rate, which requires that all firms be a constant revolution to survive. Balance of Payment Balance of payment is the net difference in goods that bought and sold by business people of a country. It

Impacts of technology to US children Research Paper

Impacts of technology to US children - Research Paper Example Computer games that came as a result of technology have helped improve children’s skills of abstract thinking, reflective thinking as well as evaluating information. Also, it has helped increase communication between the young ones and the health practitioners. The use of technology enables an individual to perceive images at a higher speed. Besides, an individual can watch videos that makes one feel the actual reality of the picture. Basing on various studies, kids who have been using technology for some time are viewed to have an increase in visual reasoning skills. The technology helps children to understand the operations of various apps that are employed in operating the technology. With these skills, the child will be able to coordinate various activities at the same time. Furthermore, it has given the children the ability to identify facial emotions expressions by the use of computers. As a result, technology has helped improve the literacy rate among the children. Tech nology can only be of good help to children if they are guided on what and what not to operate with their smartphones as well as the computers. Therefore, enabling young ones to poses cell phones fulfills this functionality for connectivity. The development of technology has made children ease the concerns that come along with childhood connectivity. Therefore, technology is considered an important factor in the current US generation because it is helping parents keep track of their children.

Vietnam War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Vietnam War - Essay Example In U.S. eyes, the Vietnamese were a passive and uninformed people, totally unready for self government" (Herring, 13). A survey of New York Times articles published during the First Indochina War revealed that the U.S. foreign policy analysis, media and public overwhelmingly concentrated on the French perspective of the conflict. Little attention was given to the Vietminh perspective or to the perspective of the French backed government of South Vietnam. This viewpoint continued until 1949 when China's civil war ended and the Communist took control of China. Shortly after taking control Mao Zedong, the Communist leader acknowledged the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and the Soviet Union quickly followed suit. After that, the U.S. media placed a greater emphasis on Cold War rhetoric when dealing with Vietnam. As noted, the Cold War mindset permeated much of American culture during this time period; "it was an age of ideological consensus, and this was true above all in foreign p olicy" (Hallin, 50). At the conclusion of the First Indochina War, the U.S. ... From 1957-1961 the U.S. attention shifted heavily on Vietnam's fate in relation to the turmoil in Laos and Cambodi as well as to the Soviet threat. This perception dominated the public opinion, media and U.S. foreign policy well into President John F. Kennedy's Administration. THE VIETNAM WAR (1955-1975): ANALYSIS OF EVENTS On August 5, 1964, Congress considered the Southeast Asia Resolution, commonly called the "Gulf of Tonkin Resolution" (Johnson, 118). After two days of debate it passed the Senate by a vote of 88-2 and the House by a resounding 416-0 (Johnson, 118). It was a resolution to deliberately allow the United States a broad hand in protecting peace and security in Southeast Asia. A second section asserted that "peace and security in southeast Asia" was vital to American national security and therefore the president, acting in accord with the Charter of the United Nations and as a member of the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), would "take all necessary steps, including the use of armed force," to assist member states of SEATO "in defense of [their] freedom" (Young, 109). Finally, the resolution would expire when the president determined "peace and security had returned to the area" (Young, 109). It could also be terminated by a subsequent congressional resolution. On March 8, 1965, 3,500 Marines landed at Da Nang. In May the first United States Army units arrived (Westmoreland, 124). With air attacks against both North and South Vietnam being launched from bases in the South, airfields were a logical target for forces from the National Liberation Front, the Communist guerrillas fighting against the South Vietnamese, and no one placed much confidence in the protection from the forces of the Army of the Republic

A letter to the editor in the Wall Street Journal Assignment

A letter to the editor in the Wall Street Journal - Assignment Example If the customers trusted the banks with their personal information and not Bloomberg, their choice should be respected and not tampered with. Though Mr. Thomas Nides, the vice chairman for Morgan Stanley says that Bloomberg is â€Å"†¦assuring customers this was a mistake and that they are going to rectify that,† Bloomberg should do more than apologizing. It should even be sued for infringement on people’s privacy and pay the affected customers damages as determined by courts. This is to keep off other firms from repeating such activities in the future. Another thing that should be done is that the affected firms, among them Goldman Sachs Group Inc., should put into place measures that will ensure that no data is leaked from their databases to unauthorized parties. This case involved a firm (Bloomberg) that has taken measures to protect its name. Next time it could involve a hacker or any individual with criminal activities. Thank

Military Personnal Experience Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Military Personnal Experience Paper - Essay Example Humanitarian Efforts in Panama 2007 Mission Development At the request of the Panamanian government through the U.S. Embassy in Panama, the 961st Engineering Battalion was deployed to the country as the part of the forces with the intention of helping the Panamanian residents whose schools, churches, hospitals and other vital installations needed repair and maintenance work. Upon receiving this request, our team immediately set out to make recommendations for the commander in charge of the mission in reference to how the 961st could help make a difference during this mission. Our recommendations resulted in the following proof of concept missions: â€Å"The mission is to happen in 3 phases. The first phase is the planning stage which was to be completed at least 8 months before deployment and will require the operations engineers to survey the work areas and the equipment that shall be needed in order to complete the work. The second phase of the mission is the deployment itself whe rein the 961st would help coordinate all the units, missions, and security for soldiers assigned to this mission. The final phase of the mission will require the same battalion to return to Panama one year later in order to survey the work done in the previous year and do any repairs required to maintain the integrity of the work provided.† Mission Implementation Once the mission development and analysis was finalized and approved by the commanding officer, I was chosen to hand pick my team amongst the Army Reservists listed in the reserve program because of my leadership abilities and skills relevant to program policy and operations, plans and reserve component integration. I was directed to immediately plan the transfer of these officers from their home bases to our newly established company for the humanitarian mission. I accomplished this task by providing the personnel section with the mission requirements and transfer justification documents which resulted in the mobiliz ation station in Fort Lee, Virginia, allowing these reservists to have a temporary change of station order assigned to them. Upon their arrival at the 961st home base, those with the relevant engineering backgrounds were immediately deployed to Panama for the completion of phase one. Phase I: Damage and Repair Assessment Phase I was one of the engineers on the advanced party team that went to Panama. While there, I collaborated with other team members regarding the painstaking plans for repair of the damaged schools, churches and hospitals. We came to realize that this was not going to be an easy task to accomplish but with a proper team work and cooperation from our immediate officers we could make a change in these people’s lives that they would never forget. Phase II: Mission Deployment By providing the Panamanian government with the necessary plans and concerns for the development and repair of their various infrastructures they were able to make proper representations wi th the U.S. Government through the U.S. Embassy in reference to the necessary materials and budgets in order to make the humanitarian effort a reality. The engineers of the 961st were immediately deployed to Panama the minute the mission deployment papers were finally

Stem Cell Harvesting Awareness Essay Example for Free

Stem Cell Harvesting Awareness Essay A structured questionnaire was administrated to 360 youths and young adults across Malaysia. The questionnaires were given to the Malaysian youths from different age groups, gender and religion. Evaluation from a number of literatures is used and conclusions are drawn based on qualitative analysis of the secondary research data. Findings – The results of this research proves that the gender, race and family income has no direct relationship on stem cell harvesting awareness. It is surprisingly not a new term to the respondents. They are hardly gain deeper information regarding stem cell harvesting and its issue from newspaper as well as television. Although the respondents think that stem cell research is ethical, they are hardly to support scientists to harvest stem cell, however, they learnt the importance of storing stem cell and willing to pay for cryopreservation service for stem cell banking. Practical implications – The results of the study lend support to the future of medical science in developing stem cells harvesting technology in Malaysia. Young couples going to form a household who age between 22-35 years old are the potential influence to the society to increase the awareness of this advance technology. Keywords – Stem cell, Social Cognitive Theory, and Media Dependency Theory Paper type – Research paper About the author: Lim Yoke Theng is currently in her final year pursuing her Bachelor in Mass Communication (Hons) with INTI International University, Malaysia. The author can be reach by email ([emailprotected] com) Research on Stem cell awareness among Malaysians . 1 Introduction Stem cell research is relatively new in Malaysia (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2008). Stem cells are cells capable of developing into other types of cells and tissues. According to former research, stem cell have been viewed and can be harvested within the context of the embryo because it is within these early stages that we see the dramatic transitions of stem cells forming a range of tissues and organ systems. Later on, it can be found in adult physical body and called as adult stem cell. It now seems that probably all tissues contain adult stem cells, however, in insignificant numbers. Scientists reflect that the cells remain dormant until activated by disease or injury to that tissue. Stem cell research can potentially assist in treating a range of medical problems (Experiment Resources, 2008). It could lead humanity closer to better treatment and possibly cure a number of diseases: * Parkinson’s Disease * Alzheimer’s Disease * Heart Diseases, Stroke and Diabetes (Type 1) * Birth Defects * Spinal Cord Injuries Replace or Repair Damaged Organs * Reduced Risk of Transplantation (You could possibly get a copy of your own heart in a heart-transplantation in the future) * Stem cells may play a major role in cancer Besides, this research may also be able to explain how stem cells can be harvested and where can we found the stem cells on human body, the method and means of harvesting. To make the picture clearer to the public, functions of stem cells need to be strengthened and emphasized in medical field instead of stem cell harvesting and storage service. If stem cell is indeed the appealing alternative to those patients who struggle to live or to die, it may increase the level of awareness among Malaysia society and affect the achievement of Malaysia Medical Science Field. Patients who suffer from Alzheimers, stem cell transplantation is an option for them to recover from that disease, it has no cure but a drug called ARICEPT has been used by millions of people to help their symptoms (New York Methodist Hospital, 2010).

Developmental Stage Theories Essay Example for Free

Developmental Stage Theories Essay Developmental psychology is the scientific study of changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life span. Originally concerned with infantsand children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire life span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psycho-physiological processes; cognitive development involving areas such as problem solving, moral understanding, and conceptual understanding; language acquisition; social, personality, and emotional development; and self-concept and identity formation. Developmental psychology includes issues such as the extent to which development occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge versus stage-like development, or the extent to which children are born with innate mental structures, versus learning through experience. Many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individuals behavior, and environmental factors including social context, and their impact on development; others take a more narrowly-focused approach. Developmental psychology informs several applied fields, including: educational psychology, child psychopathology, and forensic developmental psychology. Developmental psychology complements several other basic research fields in psychology including social psychology, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and comparative psychology. Theories Attachment theory Attachment theory, theoretical frame work originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A child who is threatened or stressed will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of the secure base. There are three types of attachment styles: secure, anxious-avoidant, and anxious-resistant. Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver. This is characterized by the infants indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited. [1] A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some babies are raised without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver, or locked away under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect. The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger, despair, detachment, and temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behavior, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as an adult. [2][3] Constructivism Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as a process of actively constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the content of social interactions. There are two ways in which constructivism can occur: individual and social. Individual constructivism is when a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others. Social constructivism is when individuals construct knowledge through an interaction between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that content. [4] Ecological systems theory The Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (example: school or the home setting). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (example: a fathers job requiring more overtime ends up influencing his aughters performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life). Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenners major statement of this theory, The Ecology of Human Development[5] has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments—from the family to economic and political structures—have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through adulthood. [6] Psychosexual development Sigmund Freud believed that we all had a conscious, preconscious, and unconscious level. In the conscious we are aware of our mental process. The preconscious involves information that though we are not currently thinking about can be brought into consciousness. Lastly, the unconscious includes those mental processes which we are unaware of. He believed that the conscious and unconscious had tension because the conscious would try and hold back what the unconscious was trying to express. To explain this he developed three structures of personality; the id, ego, and superego. The id, being the most primitive of the three functioned according to the pleasure principle. The pleasure principle states that the id’s motivation is to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Based on this he proposed five universal stages of development. The first is the oral stage which occurs from birth to 12 months of age, second is the anal stage which occurs from one to three years of age, third is the phallic stage which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a person’s personality is formed by this age), the fourth is called latency which occurs from age five until puberty, and lastly stage five is the genital stage which takes place from puberty until adulthood. 7] Stages of moral development Theories of morality that stem from Jean Piaget’s cognitive-developmental viewpoint emphasize shifts in the type of reasoning that individuals use in making moral decisions. Changes in the content of the decision they reach or the actions they take as a result does not occur. [dubious – discuss] Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on this issue specifically during adolescence. He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; preconventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and postconventional moral reasoning. Preconventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning that is based on the rules and conventions of society. Lastly, postconventional moral reasoning is the stage during which society’s rules and conventions are seen as relative and subjective rather than as authoritative. [1] Stages of psychosocial development Erik Erikson became a child psychoanalyst like his mentor Anna Freud, Sigmond Freud’s daughter. He went on to reinterpret Freud’s psychosexual stages by incorporating the social aspects of it. He came up with eight stages, each of which has two crisis (a positive and a negative). Stage one is trust versus mistrust, which occurs during infancy. Stage two is autonomy versus shame and doubt which occurs during early childhood. Stage three is initiative versus guilt which occurs during play age. Stage four is industry versus inferiority which occurs during school age. Stage five is identity versus identity diffusion which occurs during adolescence. Stage six is intimacy versus isolation which occurs during young adulthood. Stage seven is generativity versus self-absorption which occurs during adulthood. Lastly, stage eight is integrity versus despair which occurs during old age. In each of these stages either one or the other crisis is developed. The ideal thing would be to have the positive crisis more developed than the negative crisis. [7] Theories of cognitive development Jean Piaget was a Swiss theorist who posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through hands-on experience. [8] He suggested that the adults role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials or the child to interact and construct. He would use Socratic questioning to get the children to reflect on what they were doing. He would try to get them to see contradictions in their explanations. He also developed stages of development. His approach can be seen in how the curriculum is sequenced in schools, and in the pedagogy of preschool centers across the United States. Piaget believed that intellectual development took place through a series of stages which caused him to come up with his Theory on Cognitive Development. Each stage consisted of steps which the child had to master before moving on to the next step. He believe that these stages where not separate from one another but rather each stage built on the previous one, hence learning was continuous. His theory consisted of four stages; sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determine when these cognitive abilities should take place. [4] Zone of proximal development Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of his/her culture. 9] Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the zone of proximal development) could help children learn new tasks. Martin Hill stated that The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child. This technique is called scaffolding, because it builds upon knowledge children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn. [10] Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the childs pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level. 10] In other words, Vygotsky claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment. [11]He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness Nature/nurture A significant issue in developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as nature versus nurture or nativism versus empiricism. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organisms genes. An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such polarised positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways in which this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology. One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on language acquisition. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through learning. The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of statistical learning. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning. The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitivemodule suited for learning language, often called the language acquisition device. Chomskys critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally. [12] But Skinners conception of Verbal Behavior has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications. [12] Mechanisms of development Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time, but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using models. Developmental models are sometimes computational, but they do not need to be. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development. Computational accounts of development often use either symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamical systems models to explain the mechanisms of development. Research areas Cognitive development Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways in which infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as problem solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal. Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously, thus development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to be obtained. K. Warner Schaie has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood. Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as progressing in the application of their cognitive abilities. 13] Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of cognitive psychology and the psychology of individual differences into the interpretation and modeling of development. [14]Specifically, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency andworking memory capacity. In addition, children in higher-levels of cognitive development have been observed to have greater mathematical fluency in basic addition and subtraction problems. 15] These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences of children who are the same-age and of the same grade-level. However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and are influenced by accounts of domain-specific information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily-specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms. Social and emotional development Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior. Erik Erikson believed we undergo several stages to achieve social and emotional development. These stages were called the Erik Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development. The stages were trust vs. mistrust, attachment, parenting style, ego identity, role diffusion, generativity versus stagnation, midlife crisis, and ego integrity versus despair. Emotional regulation or ER refers to an individuals ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts. In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally, by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take on more and more responsibility for their internal state. Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in parents and caretakers, the emotional climate in the home, and the reaction of parents and caretakers to the childs emotions. [16] Physical development Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individuals body until it reaches the adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts. [17] Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed. Traditional measures of physical maturity using x-rays are less in practice nowadays, compared to simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span. 17] A few other studies and practices with physical developmental psychology are the phonological abilities of mature 5- to 11-year-olds, and the controversial hypotheses of left-handers being maturationally delayed compared to right-handers. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996 found in three different samples that there was no difference between right- and left-handers. [17] Memory development Researchers interested in memory development look at the way our memory develops from childhood and onward. According to Fuzzy-trace theory, we have two separate memory processes: verbatim and gist. These two traces begin to develop at different times as well as at a different pace. Children as young as 4 years-old have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases up to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline. On the other hand, our capacity for gist memory, memory for semantic information, increases up to early adulthood, at which point it consistent through old age. Furthermore, our reliance on gist memory traces in reasoning increases as we age.

Replacement of Existing Air-cooled Chiller Systems

Replacement of Existing Air-cooled Chiller Systems Replacement of Existing Air-cooled Chiller Systems by Water-cooled Chiller Systems in Commercial Buildings in Hong Kong Introduction According to F.W.H. Yik, J. Burnett I.Prescott, the air-cooled chillers in Hong Kong are usually rated at an outdoor temperature of 35 oC and COP of the air-cooled chillers including the condenser fan power is ranging from 2.6 to 2.9. For a direct seawater-cooled chiller plant with seawater entering temperature of 27 oC, COP of the water-cooled chiller plant could achieve 4 to 5. As the electricity consumption for air-conditioning system in Hong Kong often accounts for a dominant portion of the operating cost of the shopping complexes, water-cooled air-conditioning systems are more preferable than air-cooled air-conditioning systems when space is sufficient for such installation and cooling water is available at low cost. In the past years, portable water supply was mainly imported from China and the reliability of this crucial water supply has been a major concern in Hong Kong. The use of fresh water in air-conditioning system was banned by Waterworks Regulations in Hong Kong and this discouraged the use of cooling towers in most commercial buildings including shopping complexes. Hence, air-cooled air-conditioning systems were prevalently installed in Hong Kong in the old days. In order to conserve electricity and to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases by electricity generation, the Hong Kong Government has put effort and emphasis on exploring the feasibility and viability of facilitating buildings to use water-cooled air-conditioning systems instead of air-cooled air-conditioning systems. Pilot Scheme for Wider Use of Fresh Water for Evaporative Cooling Towers was launched in June 2000 by the Hong Kong Government. The scheme aims to promote the energy efficient water-cooled air-conditioning syst ems and to assess the impacts on infrastructure, health and environmental effects with an ultimate aim to facilitate territory-wide implementation of water-cooled air conditioning systems in Hong Kong. Technology of Water-cooled Chiller Systems in Commercial Buildings The air-conditioning systems in buildings work on refrigeration principles by using cooling medium to decrease the indoor air temperatures. In air-cooled air-conditioning systems, heat absorbed by the refrigerant is directly rejected to the ambient; whereas in water-cooled air-conditioning systems, either fresh water or seawater is used as a heat rejection medium. And heat absorbed by the refrigerant is rejected to the ambient by evaporation through cooling towers or by seawater discharging into the sea. There are three major schemes in water-cooled air-conditioning systems, namely, the cooling tower scheme, the central sea water scheme, and the district cooling scheme. In the cooling tower scheme, the air conditioning system uses evaporative cooling tower for heat rejection. Water in the cooling tower will be lost due to continuous evaporation, bleed-off and wind drift. The water lost would be replaced by water coming from the city water mains. In central sea water scheme, the air conditioning system uses seawater for heat rejection. A dedicated central sea water supply distributes seawater from the sea to the user building. The rejected warm sweater from the condenser will be returned to the sea via dedicated pipe. In district cooling scheme, chilled water is produced by central chilled water plant. Individual user purchases chilled water for their building from the district cooling scheme operator and do not need to install their own chiller plants. For this scheme, a central chiller plant, a pump house and a central distribution pipeline network would be required. Water-cooled air conditioning system rejects heat depending on the ambient wet-bulb temperature rather than the dry-bulb temperature, so the refrigerant can be cooled to a lower temperature. This results in a better system coefficient of performance (COP) and thus more energy efficient. The District Cooling Scheme and Cooling Tower Scheme are more efficient than conventional air-cooled system as much as 35% and 20% respectively in accordance with a study commissioned by the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department (EMSD). Pros and Cons for Application of Water-cooled Chiller Systems Equipped water-cooled chillers and cooling tower with VSD and optimize their operation by automation control system could effectively trim down the peak demand charge, optimize the chiller efficiency in off-design condition, and lead to a more efficient operation of the overall water-cooled air-conditioning system. Variable speed drive chiller compressor can be considered as replacement of traditional chiller in the future, as its cost has been gradually reduced. The VSD chiller compressor will allow the compressor to run at lower speed under part-load conditions, thereby yielding a lower compressor kW/ton rating under such situations than using conventional centrifugal chillers where part-load control is by controlling the inlet guide vanes. In the conventional chiller plant automation control system, it controls the cooling tower to open the valves and start the tower fan on one-to-one basis even in common header system. When the condensing water temperature drops, the required compressor head will reduce. The efficiency of the water-cooled chiller equipped with VSD will improve by 4 to 5% while the entering condensing water temperature drops by 1 oC. It, therefore, would be better to operate the idle cooling towers in lower speed in order to further lower the condensing water temperature for the water-cooled chillers so as to increase the efficiency of the chillers. Lower total fan power consumption and lower condensing water temperature are resulted. As a result, optimization of the chiller and cooling tower operation with automation control system as above would further increase efficiency of the water-cooled chiller plant. The operating strategy of the multiple chillers is also crucial to achieve efficient operation of the chillers. For multiple chillers operating at a part-load condition, the second chiller should not be brought on-line until the first one is up to a pre-determined capacity. Generally, the least energy is used by one chiller operating at 90% capacity as compared with that used by two chillers each operating at 45% capacity. Retrofitting the existing air-cooled chiller plant with new water-cooled chiller plant could usually rectify the problems of load mismatching, low reliability of the existing chiller plant. Additional benefit from the conversion of air-cooled to water-cooled chiller plant would be the improvement of system reliability and minimization of system downtime when all the water-cooled chillers are furnished with variable speed drive as the starters. In case of power loss, the restart time of chiller could be reduced from 30 minutes to 5 minutes when compared with the conventional and typical EM starter. Moreover, after the conversion of the water-cooled chiller, less power would be consumed which means less CO2 emission. This would reduce the green house effect. There are nonetheless some limitations and potential risks for replacing the existing air-cooled air-conditioning system with new water-cooled cooling tower system. Noise from cooling towers, stagnant water in dead legs of water pipe or in idle system, nutrient growth due to contamination from surrounding areas and exposure to direct sunlight, poor water quality such as Legionella count, deficiencies in cooling tower system, separation of the cooling towers and access to existing building/residents, and occupational safety and health issues are all have to be dealt with carefully during the design stage, the installation stage as well as the operation and maintenance stage. Appropriate cooling tower system design, regular and proper maintenance including water treatment to the cooling tower system, and annual audit are all necessary to minimize the potential risks from the cooling tower system. Also, conversion of the existing air-cooled chiller plant to water-cooled chiller plant takes up more spaces as the additional air-conditioning equipment including cooling towers, condensing water pumps, water tanks, condensing water pipes, etc. shall be incorporated into the system and all of the equipment and the structural supporting frames for cooling towers and water tanks require additional spaces. Like places in Hong Kong where it is so densely populated and space is very limited with very high land price, optimal utilization of building spaces is a very important factor which the landlords would consider. Model to Access Efficiency Improvement Implementation of Load-based Speed Control for System Optimization in Water-cooled Chiller Systems The system COP means the chiller load output divided by the total input power of the chiller, condenser water pump and cooling tower fan. For conventional operation of cooling towers, the fans are cycled on and off, or controlled at variable speed to maintain the temperature of cooling water leaving the tower at its set point. The condenser water pump is staged continuously to provide the chiller operating with the rated flow of condenser water for all loading conditions. In accordance with the studies performed by F. W. Yu and K. T. Chan, load-based control could be applied to enhance the energy performance of water-cooled chiller systems. Thermodynamic-behavior chiller and cooling tower models were developed to find out how the energy use varies for a chiller system operating under various controls of condenser water pumps and cooling tower fans. The optimum operation of the water-cooled chiller systems could be obtained via the load-based speed control which the speed of the cooling tower fans and the condenser water pumps is regulated as a linear function of the chiller part load ratio. It resembles the typical sequencing of chillers based on their load conditions and without the need of high quality humidity sensors to reset the cooling water temperature. The system COP under the optimal control could increase by 1.4% to 16.1% when compared with the equivalent system of fixed temperature and flow rate control for the cooling water leaving the coo ling towers. Improvement in system performance could be achieved by applying variable speed control to the condenser water pumps and the cooling tower fans. To optimize the system, the condenser water flow rate would vary in direct proportion to the chiller load. This results in the control algorithm of pump speed (Spump,op) shown in Equation (1), given that speed is directly proportional to flow rate in accordance with the pump laws. The minimum speed is set at half of the full speed (Spump,full) to ensure the minimum condenser water flow required when the chiller load in terms of part load ratio (PLR) drops to below 0.5. Spump, op = (1) Following the traditional control of cooling water temperature, the controller for tower fan speed modulation has to evaluate the optimum set point (Tctwl,op) and operates the fan at the right speed to meet that set point. Based on the analysis by F. W. Yu and K. T. Chan, it is possible to apply load-based speed control for cooling tower fans so as to achieve optimum system operation. Figure 4 shows data of the optimum fan speed at which the maximum system COP took place for a set of operating conditions in terms of various combinations of PLRs from 0.2 to 1 at 0.1 intervals and wet-bulb temperatures from 16 to 28 DegC at 4 DegC intervals. Using regression analysis, a linear relationship between the optimum fan speed (Sfan,op) and chiller PLR can be obtained as Equation (2) with the coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.9215. Sfan,full denotes the full speed of the tower fans and the constant coefficients would be different for each specific design of the system. Sfan,op = (0.7281PLR + 0.1776) Sfan,full (2) It is expected that the load-based speed control is generic for all types of multiple-chiller systems with full or partial use of variable speed drives for the system components. The optimal control of the whole system could be highly simplified in this way as the sequencing of chillers, pumps and tower fans and their individual speed controls can be based entirely on the chiller load conditions only. The system COP under the optimal control could increase by 1.4% to 16.1% when compared with the equivalent system of fixed temperature and flow rate control for the cooling water leaving the cooling towers. Conclusion Retrofitting the existing air-cooled chiller plant with new water-cooled chiller plant could usually rectify the problems of load mismatching and low reliability of the existing chiller plant. A better system coefficient of performance (COP) and thus more energy efficient would be achieved. The application of water-cooled chiller system is more efficient than the conventional air-cooled system for as much as 35%. Implementation of the load-based speed control for the system could further increase the system COP by as much as around 16%. REFERENCES: F.W. Yu, K.T. Chan, Economic benefits of optimal control for water-cooled chiller systems serving hotels in a subtropical climate, Energy and Buildings (2009) 1-7. F.W.H. Yik, J. Burnett, I. Prescott, A study on the energy performance of three schemes for widening application of water-cooled air-conditioning systems in Hong Kong, Energy and Buildings 33 (2001) 167-182. F.W. Yu, K.T. Chan, Energy signatures for assessing the energy performance of chillers, Energy and Buildings 37 (2005) 739-746. F.W. Yu, K.T. Chan, Optimization of water-cooled chiller system with load-based speed control, Applied Energy 85 (2008) 931-950. Jerry Ackerman, What a Water-Cooled HVAC System Can Do for Your Building, Buildings 102 (3) (2008) 72-76. Jeff Strein, Air- or Water-Cooled, ASHRAE Journal (7) (2009) 11-12. Electrical Mechanical Services Department, Code of Practice for Water-cooled Air Conditioning Systems, Part 1: Design, Installation and Commissioning of Cooling Towers 2006 Edition (1) (2007) 1-37. Electrical Mechanical Services Department, Energy Efficiency and Conservation for Buildings 1-40. Electrical Mechanical Services Department, Code of Practice for Energy Efficiency of Air Conditioning Installations 2007 Edition 1-30. Electrical Mechanical Services Department, Implementation Study for Water-cooled Air-Conditioning Systems at Wan Chai and Causeway Bay Investigation (7) (2005) 1-31. Electrical Mechanical Services Department, Guidelines on Energy Efficiency of Air Conditioning Installations 1998 Edition 1-42. Electrical Mechanical Services Department, Hong Kong Energy End-use Data 2008 (9) (2008) 1-39. Ben Erpelding, Real Efficiency of Central Plants, Heating Piping Air Conditioning Engineering (5) (2007) Trane, Implications for Chilled-Water Plant Design, Engineers Newsletter Volume 28 No. 1 1-4. W.L. Lee, Hua Chen, F.W.H. Yik, Modeling the performance characteristics of water-cooled air-conditioners, Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 1456-1465. Electrical Mechanical Services Department, Territory-Wide Implementation Study for Water-cooled Air Conditioning Systems in Hong Kong (6) (2003) 1-28. Ramez Naguib, Total Cost of Ownership for Air-Cooled and Water-Cooled Chiller Systems, ASHRAE Journal (4) (2009) 42-48. Trane, Promoting the Use of Water Cooled Air Conditioning System, Trane Newsletter 2 (9) (2005) 1-3.

Gender Norming Essay -- essays research papers fc

Gender Norming What exactly is a standard? According to Webster’s dictionary, a standard is a level of quality or excellence that is accepted as the norm or by which actual attainments are judged. Standards are created because someone believes that a fair and efficient form of doing something is necessary. The military is full of these standards. One of the most widely known is the Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT). It tests the maximum amount of push-ups and sit-ups a person can do in two minutes. Along with completing a two-mile run in the allotted time prescribed. The APFT is different from any other standardized test I have ever seen. It is painfully obvious that the test is severely skewed in the females favor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  About fifteen years ago, â€Å"a group of sports medicine experts in the Army decided that the standards for the females in the APFT were not fair† (www.us.army.mil/athleticmed.html). They believe that overall some parts of the body were weaker on females than in males, and that a new test could help females be equals in the military. This is despite the fact the women had been doing the APFT for years with out a problem, and no complaints were ever filed. Never the less, a physical fitness board was created in order to research a fairer standard. After several years of research, the board eventually came up with what is now the current APFT. They created a process called gender norming. Their hope was that this would set the bar for ...

Future of Nuclear Energy in America Essay -- The Future Role of Nuclea

Foreword Nuclear Energy has many proponents and much opposition. Many of the groups that oppose nuclear power have legitimate concerns, mainly with the dangers of nuclear material in relation with human health concerns and environmental troubles that are risked by allowing nuclear power plants to increase in number. Yet, many of these opposition groups have made outspoken and radical claims about the â€Å"hidden† motives of why nuclear power is promoted and subsidized by our federal government. For example, The Nuclear Information and Resource Service claim that the federal government has the intention of committing genocide against Native Americans because uranium mining is predominantly done on reservations. Another cry out by nuclear power opponents is the constant reliving of the few nuclear mishaps that occurred decades ago, at Chernobyl or Three Mile Island. No doubt, past accidents have happened worldwide and are important reminders to not play around with nuclear material, b ut technology has improved as well, a fact opponents fail to consider. Many of these organizations feel that other sources should be used to supply America’s energy needs. These types of statements tag many opponents to nuclear energy as misinformed, out of touch with scientific facts, or just closed minded to the whole concept of nuclear power. On the other hand, the proponents of nuclear energy like President Bush see it as cheap, and environmentally friendly. As a result, President Bush passed the Comprehensive Energy Bill in 2005 that would increase production of all types of energy, including nuclear, by giving subsidies and tax breaks to nuclear power producers. Keeping safe America’s capabilities for generating electric power by way of nuclear e... ... Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall FEMA (2006). Are You Ready? Retrieved November 12, 2012 from http://www.fema.gov/areyouready International Nuclear Safety Center (2008). Maps of Nuclear Power Reactors Retrieved November 12, 2012 http://www.insc.anl.gov/pwrmaps/map/united_states.php NIRS (2008). Top 11 Reasons to Oppose Nuclear Power Retrieved November 14, 2012 from http://www.nirs.org/nukerelapse/background/ Parenti, Christian (2008). What Nuclear Renaissance? Retrieved November 10, 2012 from http://www.thenation.com/doc/20080512/parenti Uranium Producers of America (2008). Promoting the Viability of Domestic Uranium Retrieved November 7, 2012 http://www.uraniumproducersamerica.com/supply.html U. S. Department of Energy (2008). Safe handling and disposal of spent nuclear fuel Retrieved November 18, 2012 http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/

Incest in Kings Row :: essays research papers

Shady characters permeate this film, but they can be easily forgotten under the thick melodrama that sweeps you into the storyline. Perhaps the most disturbing character to me was Dr. Tower. I mean, really, who is this guy? From the beginning I could detect a kind of strange dynamic between Cassie and her father. After she and Parris swim together as children, she says that if her father finds out she's been swimming with Parris, he would "take a switch" to her. At first I thought maybe he was strict about her coming straight home from school or something, but as soon as I heard about the mother staying in the home all of the time, it became more clear. Cassie's mother was not insane or ill but a victim of a possessive man. By confining his wife and daughter to the home, he isolated himself, making himself unknown to anyone else in the town. As in every small town people talked in Kings Row, and Dr. Tower avoided a lot of this gossip by not allowing anyone into or out of his home. Even at Cassie's birthday party, the guests were all outside, and when Parris enters the house to thank Dr. Tower, he is quickly shooed away to go home. Did anyone else think of Forrest Gump here? I had to think of Forrest and Jenny as children and how much their interactions were like that of Cassie and Parris. Both little girls had dark and deep secrets: they were victims of incest. Cassie is pulled out of school and is not allowed to leave the house. She is timid, skiddish, and cannot look Parris in the eye when he visits their home. Dr. Tower would like us to believe that she has gone insane, as he claims his wife was, and even Parris buys this. I almost wanted to scream when Parris says, "He must've known about us," commenting on Dr. Tower murdering his daughter and commiting suicide in order to prevent Parris from living a life with a psychotic wife. Yes, Dr. Tower did know about Parris and Cassie. He knew they had a sexual relationship, and that is why he killed Cassie. Perhaps the biggest clue was when Cassie comes screaming to Parris in the middle of the night for help and then refuses his request to walk her home. She probably knew that if Parris came home with her, her father, knowing about their relationship, would kill him as well.

American Civil War Essay

Many sources claim that the American Civil War is one of the most frequently written about topic in American history, and in that, the individuals who led both sides of the epic struggle have been immortalized in print as well. A pivotal work that meets both of these criteria is â€Å"A Long Shadow: Jefferson Davis and the Final Days of the Confederacy†, by Michael B. Ballard. In writing this book, Ballard sought not only to provide a factual account of the 1865 retreat of the government of the Confederate States of America from its capital city of Richmond, Virginia, just ahead of the conquering United States troops with particular emphasis on the leader of the CSA, Jefferson Davis. This book review will not only put forth compelling reasons why students and casual readers alike should choose this book, but also a brief summary of the book and a discussion of the themes found within the book. It almost goes without saying that any book worth reviewing should be worth reading, Ballard’s book being no exception. The work is worthwhile for the reader- be it a student or Civil War enthusiast- because it is as much an account of an often-neglected part of a massively researched and discussed portion of American history, but also because the book is a tale of human experience, political differences, and the clashing of two ways of life which ultimately would only allow for one of the ways of life to move forward from that point intact. First, the book goes into detail about the man behind the CSA, President Jefferson Davis. Ballard uses vivid imagery to describe the frail appearance of Davis by the spring of 1865, due in large part to the strain that was being placed on him to guide a new nation, and especially a massive army, in the face of a highly motivated and larger, better equipped US armed force , which in a very short time would crush Davis’ army and entire government, culminating in the formal surrender of the CSA on April 9, 1865. The book then moves forward with accounts of the military maneuvers, commanders and defeats that made up the waning days of the Confederacy itself. By looking beneath the text of â€Å"A Long Shadow†, it is possible to gain a better understanding of the underlying themes of the book, leading to a much better understanding and appreciation of the work itself. Perhaps the most prominent theme of this book is the struggle of human spirit to overcome insurmountable odds to achieve a given end. For Jefferson Davis, his all consuming goal was to see his Confederate States of America gain recognition and independence not only from the United States, but also the other nations of the world, from whom Davis and his fellow officials sought diplomatic relations and nation status. The other theme that is a common thread in Ballard’s book is perseverance when one believes that their cause is just. It can definitely be argued that both the US and CSA felt in their heart of hearts that what they were fighting for was not only right, but the absolute correct course of human events. Indeed, both sides of the conflict claimed that God was on their side and felt that He would see them to victory no matter what. Perhaps this sort of divine protection is what kept Jefferson Davis constantly trying to keep his cause going, even to the point where Davis himself was at the point of collapse and his nation lay in shambles. In conclusion, it can fairly be said that this book is worthy of being considered one of the most relevant works on the topics of Jefferson Davis, the Confederate States of America, and the final days of the American Civil War as well as an epic tale of human endurance, struggle, triumph and defeat. Works Cited Ballard, Michael B. 1986. A Long Shadow: Jefferson Davis and the Final Days of the Confederacy. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.

The Evolution of Interior Design

The Evolution of Interior Design Question: Discourse the work James Stirling ; Norman Foster ; Ettore Sottsass ; Richard Rogers ; David Hicks ; Philippe Starck. Post- Modernism period is from the1950s to 21th century. Post-modern manner leading at 1970s influenced today architecture and merchandise design even in writing design. Apart of influence to architecture design, it besides has civilization, literature, art, doctrine, history, economic sciences, architecture, fiction, and literary unfavorable judgment. Post-modern manner make more same manner edifice in the universe appeared. Post-Modernism makes local features and traditional design fade out. Nowadays architecture and urban landscape are excessively deadening and no particular point. However architecture industry appears immature interior decorators and immature designer groups that try to alter and develop the Post-Modern manner edifice mentality. That occurred revolution of the architecture industry. Classical, Modern and Post-Modern architecture are simple definition. We can see every metropolis established the architecture by utilizing of the geometric. The geometric construction is the most popular manner. These thought had been given from Bauhaus. Bauhaus is influenced to modernism architecture largely. The modern architecture it is non excessively much ornament. The stuff and functional architecture is a modern manner characteristic chiefly. Until now, the Post-Modern architecture is non merely about aesthetic. Meanwhile Post-Modern architecture the feature is focus in environmental protection. Besides that, we can establish the Post-Modernism return to classical manner in architecture and furniture design. I will present several most of import Post-Modern Architects and Designers. James Stirling he is Architect in British. He designed the History Faculty Library, Cambridge, completed in 1968. He was a led in Post-modern motion of import individual. In Italy Ettore Sottsass is a interior decorator. Graduated with a grade in architecture but some of his iconic plants is a merchandise design Typewriter Valentine. Richard Rogers is a British designer. He corporate with the Italian designer Renzo Piano Designed the Pompidou Center in 1971-77 in Paris. The Centre attack is hi-tech. David Hicks is an Interior Designer. He strongly introduced Color and Graphic such as colliding colourss and geometric form rugs. He pioneered a mix and lucifer old-timer with the modern pieces. There are two of import individual will be discussed in below. They are most popular designer Norman Foster and Designer Philippe Starck at today. First allow us discourse Norman Foster, Norman Forster is a Post-Modernism hi-tech iconic designer interior decorator. He is worldwide celebrated designer. He is a star in architectural industry besides he won many of the universe category architectural awards. He is one of the universe ‘s major designers. The Gale Group Inc ( 2004 ) point out that â€Å"Called the â€Å" hero of high-tech, † his architectural signature is a design that opens a edifice up to the populace, is aware of the environment, and saves money by utilizing modern stuffs and advanced technology.† HSBC Bank is a most popular bank In Hong Kong. Besides Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation ( HSBC ) Headquarters. Looking edifices around in Hong Kong Central the architecture is still most modern, even though it was established in 1985. That architecture is a British designer Norman Foster design. In fact, his celebrated designed Huge Financial Commercial Building and Airport Terminal. In 1986s Hong Kong, we all know HSBC Building Hong Kong designed by him the edifice manner is hi-tech. Structural of steel parts was manufactured in United Kingdom. Glass, aluminium outer frame and flooring was manufactured in America. Component installations were manufactured in Japan. The edifice architecture design construction is non internal support. All back uping constructions was located outer frame of the edifice and free remotion. And glass frontage designed to do the best usage of natural visible radiation. The land floor anteroom door is toward north South, winter maintain cool in the anteroom, it save air-conditioning costs. The High-tech architecture is besides known as Structural Expressionism. That constructing gives him celebrated in the international architecture industry. At 1998s Hong Kong International Airport Terminal besides designed by him. That made him well-known in arc hitecture industry. At 2013s, he designed Kai Tak Cruise Terminal in Hong Kong. In add-on Hong Kong International Airport Terminal and Hung Hom Station were close to the same design. At the same clip at Beijing, China 2003 – 2008. He designed Beijing Airport. The exterior of the Beijing airdrome expression like similar to Hong Kong International Airport. That is Norman surrogate manner I would state. Although, the airdrome is look like excessively similar of mentality. But we if carefully analyze for that architecture. We will happen some differences and interesting is come from the Beijing airdrome architecture design. Norman Forster is non merely merely using technologically improved to airport edifice. He is really intimate design for in footings of rider experience. The terminal it’s used surging aerodynamic on the roof. And so the roof Imagination signifier Chinese firedrake signifier and Chinese colourss red. It is so symbolic for China. Norman Foster designed for maximal flexibleness to care with can non cognize in future of the air power industry. It is deciding the hereafter complicated air travel. The Beijing Airport Terminal that interior spacial lucidity uniting with high service criterions. As for public conveyance, the airdrome edifice connect are to the full integrated all sort of transit. Passengers are non walking excessively long distances arrive finish. He suggested shorten distances of the route for flights. It can be made transportation times flights are minimized clip. Beijing airport terminus is like to Hong Kong International airport terminus. The construct is both of the unfastened position to the exterior. Particular comment, the Beijing airdrome merely four old ages can be design and built that airdrome terminus. David McManus ( 2015 ) point out that â€Å"The terminus edifice is one of the world’s most sustainable, integrating a scope of inactive environmental design constructs, † Mr. Foster he really good usage the fanlight. The fanlight can be gain from the Sun visible radiation. I’m holding he is â€Å" hero of high-tech † . His great usage high engineering for himself design construct. Mr. Foster has alone architecture system and signifier. If no Hong Kong International Airport design and build experience. I think Beijing Airport can non complete within four old ages of design and built that airdrome terminus. I would state he is architect of hi-tech male parent. What is this? UFO can be doing an orange juice or lemon juicy? The UFO allow me conceive of that merely a micro-sculpture is non holding functional. But that merchandise is a citrus squeezer. That might be one of his best-known plants. This citrous fruit squeezer Iconic symbol of Philippe Starck and produced by Alessi. Philippe Starck is celebrated Product Designer, Industrial Design every bit good as designer. He is astonishing interior decorator in my head. His feature is the focal point on different countries of the design. His plant is from high budget of the architectural design to smaller plants of the toothbrush merchandise. He is really originative in all design. Such as designed of the computing machine mouse for Microsoft, every bit good as redesigned new packaging for Beer Brand. Philippe Starck design normally use different stuff mixed such as glass and rocks or plastic and aluminium combine. His about celebrated design works in 1990 Juicy Salif. That Juicer looks as a Rocket Launcher that is designed for Italian Brand Alessi Housewares. The most well-known is the 1984 Paris Cafe Costes. In add-on, the Asakusa Tokyo Asahi Beer Tower, Hong Kong Peninsula Hotel Felix saloon. His interior design manner keeps in classical or old manner and assorted with the modern-day stuff. That his attemp t is design for every organic structure Philippe Starck with Baccarat’s signature ruddy crystal pendent lamp redesigned. He adds black crystal and lined with aluminium on the pendent lamp. The name is ZENITH NOIR it is neoclassical historical manner. He likes to alter the historical manner utilizing new modern stuff renew. Another iconic and great design is ghost chair. The chair is best Sellerss today. That is neoclassical historical manner. He redesigns the classical chair was used by crystalline polycarbonate stuff. The chair used by crystalline stuff, it will be unseeable in the inside has no chair consequence, that consequence is so interesting. Philippe Starck in 2014s cooperates with RIKO. RIKO is a wooden buildings company. The undertaking name is a Prefabricated Accessible Technology Homes short name is PATH. We are populating in a modern age ; the PATH house has been given populating with nature for homo. The PATH house design construct is come from future. Uniting high engineering, comfy, sustainable, dateless design and regard environment. The PATH thought is come from Philippe Starck. But he is inexorable that PATH house design its does non used a Starck manner. The house building is utilizing Aluminum and Spruce Wood. The house exterior is utilizing aluminum stuff. This stuff is good for insularity consequence. Indoor interior design is utilizing dapper decor. Overall for the house, his design is included coordinating, renewable energy power coevals, solar panels, air current turbines, geothermic systems, and rainwater aggregation system. It will be installed on the roof. It can be greatly reduced by more than 50 % of ecological technology. That house design is a Philippe Starck breakthrough his design thought. Philippe Starck design is in usage the historical elements really good. Even the PATH house design is non Starck manner but we if carefully analyze for that house. We will establish the house is a Roman ionic order transforming of the lift. He is my favourite interior decorator for me. In decision, I think Norman Foster has influence to architecture travel to hi-tech tendency and systematisation buildings. He is leading the High-tech architecture functional edifice and environmental protection constructing popular development motion. Today design manner influence modern-day designer and have High-tech outer frame manner use. Philippe Starck has influence to modern-day stuff and renaissance classical or old manner design blending use. Beyond the Post-Modernism and design regulations. His astonishing design manner inspires a new coevals of designer and interior decorators what is originative and multitasking of design think.Reference List: Muschamp, V. ( 1992, June 26 ) . James Stirling, 66, a Bold British Architect, Dies. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nytimes.com/1992/06/26/arts/james-stirling-66-a-bold-british-architect-dies.html Moore, R. ( 2014, May 18 ) . Ettore Sottsass: the godfather of Italian cool. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/may/18/ettore-sottsass-review-godfather-italian-coo l-memphis-collective Zukowsky, J. ( 2013, May 30 ) . Richard Rogers British designer. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/506823/Richard-Rogers Lambert, E. ( 1998, April 2 ) . Exhilarating eclectic method and abundant colour reawaken English gustatory sensation. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.architecturaldigest.com/architecture/archive/hicks_article_012000 The Gale Group Inc. ( 2004 ) . Norman Robert Lord Foster of Thames Bank Foster. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Norman_Robert_Lord_Foster_of_Thames_Bank_Foster.aspx McManus, D. ( 2015, January 26 ) . Beijing Airport Building. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.e-architect.co.uk/beijing/beijing-airport-building McManus, D. ( 2015, January 26 ) . Beijing Airport Building. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.e-architect.co.uk/beijing/beijing-airport-building The Starck truth: Does British plan demand salvaging? . Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/sep/13/philippe-starck-design-for-life Philippe Starck ‘s new prefabricated house realises the modern life ideal. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.wallpaper.com/architecture/philippe-starcks-new-prefabricated-house-realises-the-modern-living-ideal/8093